Author – Ishan Parmar. He is a high school senior at Newark Academy, New Jersey. His research is based on marginalized and underprivileged communities.

The purpose of this paper was to explore the challenges faced by manual scavengers (Safai Karamcharis) employed with Municipal Corporation of Mumbai, India, focusing on their socio-economic conditions and the inefficiency of previously passed governmental reforms. As of 2024, the Mumbai Municipal Corporation (Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation or BMC) employs around 28,000 to 30,000 Safai Karamcharis. This includes both permanent employees and those hired on a contractual basis. These workers are responsible for cleaning and maintaining public spaces, roads, and sewers across the city. The study draws upon interviews with 20 individuals from Mumbai engaged in manual scavenging. The purpose of the interviews was to reveal the nature of their work as well as the challenges associated with it. Additionally, the study highlights the strong desire among workers to break the generational cycle of manual scavenging, with education and better opportunities for their children emerging as key aspirations. Despite legislative efforts such as the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act of 1993 and Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act of 2013, manual scavenging persists, underlining the need for stronger enforcement. The paper concludes with recommendations for improved safety measures and ways to increase the quality of life of these workers using their testimonials as qualitative evidence.

Keywords: Safai Karmacharis, manual scavengers, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation

Introduction

The Law of Manu is an ancient Hindu scripture that has been followed by many across the world. It describes the origins of the caste system, symbolically linking it to the four body parts of a deity. According to this text, every Hindu is born into a specific caste based on their family lineage and social status. But further, Hindus believe that depending on the merit of one’s actions in their previous life, they would be reincarnated into a higher caste. At the top of this hierarchy are the Brahmins, followed by the Kshatriyas, then the Vaishyas, and finally the Shudras, who occupy the lowest position in this structure.^[1] It is important to note that there is a fifth class called Untouchables–or Dalits– which falls outside of the caste system. The Dalits are the most discriminated group of people in India, often having no opportunities for jobs and being significantly economically disadvantaged.^[2] The caste system dictates the type of jobs an individual would get, not based on their actions, but simply social status. It’s quite simple: the highest caste gets the best jobs with the most status, while the lowest caste is forced to clean latrines and sweep streets.^[3] Legislatively, the caste system was abolished in 1950. However, discrimination is still very persistent and many challenges have been overcome ever since then.^[4]

Manual scavenging is a term that refers to the job of manually cleaning, carrying, and disposing of human excrement from dry latrines and sewers.^[5] This job is primarily forced upon the Dalit community and spans generations of children working the same laborious jobs as their fathers before them. However, there have been some laws that have attempted to end the practice of forcing this job upon dalits such as the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act of 2013.^[6] This paper will explain the Indian government’s attempts in the past to end manual scavenging or improve their lives. Furthermore, the paper will evaluate opportunities for governments in the future to actually make a tangible difference in the lives of the manual scavengers through the use of testimonials from the workers themselves.

Literature Review

The literature surrounding manual scavenging in India paints a grim picture of the failures of legislation and rehabilitation efforts. The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act of 1993, intended to outlaw the construction of non-flushable latrines and the employment of manual scavengers, has been largely ineffective.^[7] Further reforms and the introduction of the 2013 Act as mentioned in the introduction have also struggled with implementation issues. Scholars attribute these failures to inadequate enforcement, corruption, and lack of political will, which was complemented by persistent social stigma.^[8] Moreover, the literature suggests that rehabilitation programs have been sporadically applied and poorly managed, often failing to reach the intended beneficiaries or to provide them with viable alternatives to scavenging.^[9] However, some other literature suggests that the role of NGOs like Safai Karmachari Andolan in advocating for the rights of manual scavengers and pushing for policy enforcement is frequently highlighted as a critical element in the fight against manual scavenging. So rather than legislative actions creating a tangible difference within the manual scavenging community, it is the NGOs and other social service organizations that are truly generating an impact.^[10]

Methodology

This study adopts a qualitative research methodology, involving semi-structured interviews with 20 Indians from Mumbai, aged 23 to 45 years, comprising 12 males and 8 females. Interviewees number 1 to 12 were male and interviewees number 13 – 20 were either wives or daughters of manual scavengers. This demographic spread provides diverse insights into the personal and professional impacts of manual scavenging. Whether they be the workers themselves, or relatives of the workers, their testimonials were taken into consideration. The interviews focused on their daily experiences, the socio-economic challenges they face, and their perception of their government. All 20 of the interviewees were asked the same question regardless if their background fit within the scope of the question. If their background did not fit within the scope of the question, a hyphen was put next to their number. Or if the interviewee had no response, a hyphen was also put next to their number. The qualitative data were analyzed thematically to identify common patterns and divergences in the experiences of the participants, providing a nuanced understanding of the impacts of current policies and the lived realities of manual scavengers. Finally, suggestions for the Indian government were created from the analysis and recognition of the patterns.

Interviewee Names & Ages:

Interviewee Responses with Analysis:

1. What does a typical day at work look like for you?

The survey conducted among 20 Safai Karmacharis (sanitation workers) got responses from individuals regarding their typical workday. Their responses provide a clear picture of the nature of their daily tasks, the challenges they face, and the working conditions they involve in. The data reveals a range of responsibilities that can be grouped into a few key categories.

1. Garbage Collection and Handling* A significant portion of the respondents (7 out of 20) reported that their primary job involves garbage collection and handling. Their tasks include, loading garbage onto vehicles, collecting garbage in specific areas and waste sorting. This category highlights that a major aspect of their work revolves around physically managing waste, often involving manual labor and navigating difficult or unsafe conditions, especially in areas where mechanical assistance is limited.
2. Street Cleaning and Sweeping* Five respondents (25%) reported that their daily tasks include street cleaning and sweeping. This responsibility involves various labor-intensive activities such as sweeping streets, removing litter, and ensuring public spaces are clean. Street cleaning is crucial for maintaining the aesthetic appeal of urban areas and for promoting public health by preventing the accumulation of waste that can attract pests and cause hygiene issues. The work often requires long hours spent outdoors, directly handling waste in public spaces. Additionally, these workers face challenges such as exposure to traffic, adverse weather conditions, and potential health risks from unsanitary materials. This aspect of their job emphasizes the importance of sanitation in community well-being.
3. Drain & Gutter Cleaning* Four respondents (20%) indicated that their daily tasks include drain and gutter cleaning. This responsibility involves clearing blocked drains and removing waste, which is critical for maintaining proper drainage and preventing flooding in urban areas. The work is often physically demanding, requiring workers to maneuver in confined and unsanitary spaces. This task not only involves the removal of debris but also the management of unpleasant odors and potential exposure to hazardous materials. The need for thorough cleaning of drains is essential to ensure public health and safety, as neglected drains can lead to waterborne diseases and increased pest populations.
4. Toilet Cleaning* Three respondents (15%) mentioned that their duties involve toilet cleaning. This task is essential for maintaining hygiene in public facilities. Workers are responsible for ensuring that toilets are clean and sanitary, which is particularly important in areas with high foot traffic. Cleaning toilets involves dealing with unpleasant odors and potentially hazardous waste, requiring personal protective equipment and a strong commitment to public health. Although it constitutes a smaller portion of their overall duties, this task is vital for providing safe and clean facilities for the community.
5. Other Manual Tasks (e.g., Dead Animal Removal)* One respondent (5%) reported involvement in other manual tasks, such as dead animal removal. This task, while infrequent, is crucial for maintaining public health and safety. The removal of dead animals prevents the spread of diseases and reduces unpleasant odors in the community. This type of work can be particularly challenging, both physically and emotionally, as it involves handling deceased animals in unsanitary conditions. The low percentage of responses in this category indicates that while it is an important task, it is not a daily responsibility for most workers.

Conclusion

The analysis of these categories reveals the diverse and essential responsibilities carried out by Safai Karmacharis. From street cleaning to specialized tasks like drain and toilet maintenance, each role is vital for ensuring public health and sanitation. Understanding these responsibilities sheds light on the challenges these workers face and emphasizes the importance of their contributions to maintaining clean and safe communities.

2. What are the biggest challenges with your job?

Here’s a detailed analysis of the challenges faced by Safai Karmacharis based on the survey responses:

1.Lack of Proper Equipment/Protection* Four respondents (20%) highlighted the lack of proper equipment and protective gear as a significant challenge. This issue exposes workers to dangerous waste and unsanitary conditions, increasing their risk of injury and health problems. Proper equipment is crucial for ensuring safety while handling hazardous materials, and the absence of such resources can lead to long-term health consequences. The need for adequate protection underscores the importance of prioritizing worker safety and the necessity of providing appropriate tools for the job.

2. Physical Health Concerns* Three respondents (15%) reported physical health concerns, specifically related to unpleasant odors and the overall conditions they work in. The exposure to harmful smells and unsanitary environments can lead to various health issues, including respiratory problems and nausea. This challenge reflects the physical toll that sanitation work can take on individuals, highlighting the need for better working conditions and health measures to protect these essential workers.
3. Low Pay* Another three respondents (15%) mentioned low pay as a significant challenge. Many expressed that their wages are insufficient for basic survival, making it difficult to support themselves and their families. Low pay can lead to high turnover rates and job dissatisfaction, which can further exacerbate the issues faced by sanitation workers. Addressing wage disparities is crucial for improving the livelihoods of these workers and recognizing the essential services they provide to the community.
4. Lack of Dignity & Social Stigma* A notable 30% of respondents (6 out of 12) pointed to the lack of dignity and social stigma associated with their jobs. Many workers reported feeling disrespected and invisible to society. This stigma not only affects their self-esteem but also impacts their interactions within the community. Addressing social perceptions and fostering respect for sanitation workers is vital for promoting their dignity and ensuring they receive the recognition they deserve for their contributions to public health.
5. Job Insecurity & Long Hours* Two respondents (10%) raised concerns about job insecurity and the long hours they work. The lack of job security can lead to stress and anxiety, particularly in a field that requires consistent physical effort. Coupled with long working hours, this situation can lead to burnout and negatively impact workers’ overall well-being. Addressing these concerns is essential for ensuring a more stable and sustainable working environment.
6. No Government Support* Lastly, two respondents (10%) mentioned the lack of government support, such as insurance and other benefits. The absence of such support can leave workers vulnerable in times of illness or injury. Providing government assistance is crucial for ensuring the well-being of sanitation workers and recognizing their vital role in maintaining public health. Adequate support systems can help alleviate some of the challenges faced by these workers and improve their overall quality of life.

Conclusion

The analysis of these challenges faced by Safai Karmacharis reveals significant issues that impact their daily lives and work conditions. From the lack of proper equipment and low pay to social stigma and insufficient government support, these factors contribute to the difficulties they encounter. Addressing these challenges is essential for improving the working conditions and overall well-being of sanitation workers, ultimately leading to a more respectful and supportive environment for those who perform such crucial roles in society.

3. Do you want your children to work this job?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding whether Safai Karmacharis want their children to pursue similar work:

1. No, Wants Children to Study/Educate* A significant majority of respondents (50%) expressed a desire for their children to pursue education and better job opportunities. This reflects a strong aspiration among these workers to break the cycle of low-wage labor and provide their children with the means to succeed in life. Many believe that education is the key to accessing better employment options and improving their family’s socioeconomic status. This sentiment underscores the value placed on education as a pathway to a better future, highlighting a hope for upward mobility and improved living conditions for the next generation.
2. No, Hopes for Better Job Opportunities* Thirty percent of respondents indicated that they do not want their children to engage in similar work because they hope for better job opportunities for them. This perspective reflects a broader recognition of the challenges and social stigma associated with sanitation work. Respondents expressed a desire for their children to have a life free from the degradation often associated with manual labor, emphasizing the importance of dignity in employment. This viewpoint illustrates a deep concern for their children’s well-being and quality of life, as well as a hope that they will be able to pursue more respected and stable career paths.
3. No, Prefers Government/Office Job* Twenty percent of respondents specifically expressed a preference for their children to secure government or office jobs, even if they are low-ranking positions like a “chaprasi” (peon). This preference highlights the perceived stability and respect associated with government employment. The desire for their children to work in positions that offer job security and social recognition reflects a yearning for a better standard of living and a break from the stigmatization that comes with sanitation work. It indicates that many workers aspire for their children to achieve a status that provides not just financial stability, but also dignity and respect within society.

Conclusion

The responses reveal a strong consensus among Safai Karmacharis regarding their aspirations for their children. There is a clear desire for education and better job opportunities that allow for a life free from the challenges and stigmas associated with sanitation work. This reflects a broader hope for upward mobility and a commitment to improving the future for the next generation. The emphasis on stable and respected employment further underscores the need for societal change and recognition of the vital roles these workers play in maintaining public health and hygiene.

4. Do you know anyone who has passed away from this work?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding whether respondents know anyone who has passed away from sanitation work:

1. Yes, Knows Someone Who Passed Away *A quarter of the respondents (25%) indicated that they know someone who has passed away while performing sanitation work. This response highlights the serious risks associated with the profession, illustrating the dangers workers face daily. The example provided, where a friend died after falling into a drain, emphasizes the physical hazards inherent in sanitation tasks. Such incidents not only reflect the potential for tragic outcomes but also underline the urgent need for improved safety measures and protective equipment to safeguard workers in this field.
2. No, But Acknowledged the Risks* Two respondents (10%) stated that they do not personally know anyone who has died from this work, but they acknowledged the risks associated with sanitation tasks. This recognition suggests an awareness of the dangers present in their jobs, including the likelihood of illness or injury. Statements about workers falling sick and not recovering fully reflect a broader understanding of the long-term health consequences related to the job. This acknowledgment indicates a collective consciousness about the risks, even among those who may not have experienced a direct loss, highlighting the need for ongoing discussions about worker safety and health in the sanitation sector.
3. No* The majority of respondents (65%) reported that they do not know anyone who has passed away from sanitation work. While this response indicates a lack of personal connection to such tragedies, it does not necessarily minimize the dangers associated with the profession. Many may not have experienced direct loss but are likely still aware of the inherent risks, as seen in the previous category. This significant proportion could suggest either a relatively lower incidence of fatal accidents within their specific community or a lack of information about such incidents, emphasizing the importance of transparency and communication regarding the hazards of sanitation work.

Conclusion

The data reveals a complex perspective on the dangers of sanitation work among Safai Karmacharis. While some have experienced personal loss, many recognize the risks involved, and a majority have not directly encountered fatalities. This situation highlights the need for greater awareness, safety protocols, and support systems to protect workers from potential hazards. Acknowledging these realities is essential for advocating for better working conditions and health protections for those in the sanitation profession.

5. Do you ever worry for your husband’s/father’s safety?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding concerns for the safety of husbands or fathers working in sanitation:

1. Yes, Worries for Safety* An overwhelming majority of respondents (90%) expressed concern for the safety of their husbands or fathers working in sanitation. This significant figure underscores the inherent dangers associated with the profession, such as exposure to hazardous materials, physical risks from manual labor, and the potential for accidents. The sentiment reflected in the example response indicates a constant worry that weighs on the minds of these family members. Such anxiety can impact their emotional well-being, as the dangers associated with the job create a persistent fear for their loved ones’ safety. This response highlights the urgent need for enhanced safety measures and protective equipment to alleviate these concerns and protect sanitation workers.
2. No* Only one respondent (5%) indicated that they do not worry about their loved one’s safety. This perspective may reflect either a strong belief in their loved one’s ability to manage risks effectively or a sense of optimism regarding their safety. However, given the overwhelming concerns expressed by others, this viewpoint appears to be an outlier. It suggests that while some may feel reassured, the majority are acutely aware of the risks involved in sanitation work.
3. Acknowledges Risk but Feels Helpless* Another respondent (5%) acknowledged the risks associated with the job but expressed a sense of helplessness regarding the situation. This response captures a feeling of resignation among family members, who recognize the dangers yet feel powerless to change the circumstances. This sense of helplessness can lead to frustration and anxiety, as they grapple with the reality of their loved ones’ work conditions without the ability to influence outcomes. It emphasizes the need for systemic changes that could improve safety and working conditions for sanitation workers, alleviating some of the worry experienced by their families.

Conclusion

The data reveals a profound concern among family members for the safety of their loved ones working in sanitation. The overwhelming majority express ongoing worries, indicating a deep awareness of the risks involved. The presence of a minority who either feel optimistic or acknowledge the risks but feel helpless further underscores the complexity of emotions surrounding this issue. This situation highlights the importance of addressing safety concerns through better protective measures and support systems, ultimately aiming to create a safer work environment for sanitation workers and peace of mind for their families.

6. Have you ever been sick from your work?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding whether respondents have ever experienced health issues related to their work in sanitation:

1. Yes, Experienced Health Issues* A significant majority of respondents (75%) reported having experienced health issues as a result of their work. This high percentage underscores the serious health risks associated with sanitation jobs, including physical ailments such as rashes and skin infections. The example provided illustrates the direct impact of handling waste on workers’ health, highlighting the necessity for protective measures to minimize exposure to harmful substances. The prevalence of health issues among such a large portion of respondents emphasizes the need for improved working conditions, access to protective equipment, and health support services to address these challenges and safeguard the well-being of sanitation workers.
2. No* In contrast, 25% of respondents indicated that they have not experienced any health issues related to their work. While this figure suggests that some workers may not be directly affected, it is important to recognize that they may still be exposed to risks, and their lack of reported health issues could stem from various factors, such as individual resilience or the absence of visible symptoms. However, the significant disparity between those who have experienced health issues and those who have not highlights a troubling trend: a substantial number of sanitation workers are facing health challenges related to their work environment.

Conclusion

The data reveals a concerning picture regarding the health implications of sanitation work, with a large majority of respondents experiencing health issues linked to their job. This situation underscores the need for interventions aimed at improving working conditions, increasing access to protective gear, and promoting health awareness among workers. Addressing these issues is crucial for ensuring the long-term well-being of sanitation workers and recognizing their essential role in maintaining public health.

7. Do you receive government benefits?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding whether respondents receive government benefits:

1. Yes, Receive Benefits but Insufficient* A majority of respondents (60%) indicated that they receive government benefits, but they consider these benefits insufficient for their needs. This response highlights a significant concern about the adequacy of support provided to sanitation workers. While it is positive that many do receive some form of benefits, the acknowledgment that these are not enough to sustain their livelihoods points to systemic issues in the social safety net. The example provided illustrates the frustration and struggle faced by workers who rely on these benefits to make ends meet. This situation underscores the urgent need for policymakers to assess and enhance the adequacy of benefits offered to ensure they align with the actual living costs and challenges faced by sanitation workers.

2. Yes, Receive Benefits* In contrast, 40% of respondents reported that they receive government benefits without specifying issues of sufficiency. While this indicates a significant portion of workers receiving some form of support, it is important to note that the lack of mention regarding the adequacy of these benefits suggests a more positive experience. However, given the context of the other responses, it raises questions about whether this group may have lower expectations or different needs compared to those who find their benefits insufficient.

Conclusion

The data presents a mixed picture of government support for sanitation workers. While a substantial majority report receiving benefits, the prevailing sentiment is that these benefits are inadequate for meeting their basic needs. This finding highlights the need for a critical evaluation of the existing support systems and the development of more comprehensive and sufficient assistance programs tailored to the realities of sanitation workers. Enhancing these benefits could significantly improve their quality of life and help address the challenges they face in their essential roles.

8. What could the government do to make your lives better?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding what the government could do to improve the lives of sanitation workers:

1. Better Pay and Wages* Twenty percent of respondents (4 out of 20) emphasized the need for better pay and wages. This call for increased compensation reflects a widespread concern about financial stability and the difficulty of making ends meet on current salaries. Workers expressed that higher wages are essential for maintaining a decent standard of living. The focus on better pay highlights the critical role that fair compensation plays in valuing the contributions of sanitation workers and improving their overall quality of life.
2. Health Insurance and Medical Support* Another 20% of respondents indicated that the government should provide health insurance and medical support. This need underscores the health risks associated with sanitation work, as many workers face exposure to hazardous materials and potential illnesses. Access to comprehensive health insurance is crucial for ensuring that workers can receive necessary medical care without financial burden. This sentiment reflects a broader demand for systemic support that prioritizes the health and well-being of sanitation workers, recognizing the physical toll of their jobs.
3. Improved Working Conditions* A quarter of respondents (5 out of 20) called for improved working conditions, specifically mentioning the need for proper equipment for safety. This response highlights the physical dangers associated with sanitation tasks and the necessity for protective gear to prevent injuries and health issues. Improving working conditions not only enhances safety but also demonstrates a commitment to valuing workers’ health and welfare. This focus on equipment and safety underscores the importance of addressing immediate hazards in the workplace.
4. Education and Skill Development* Fifteen percent of respondents (3 out of 20) suggested that the government could assist with education and skill development. This response indicates a desire for opportunities that would enable workers to advance their careers and improve their livelihoods. Providing access to education and training programs could empower sanitation workers to pursue better job prospects and reduce dependency on low-wage labor. This focus on skill development reflects a recognition of the potential for upward mobility and the importance of lifelong learning.
5. Respect and Dignity* Another 15% of respondents (3 out of 20) highlighted the need for respect and dignity in their work. This response points to the social stigma associated with sanitation jobs and the importance of societal recognition of their vital role in public health. Advocating for respect involves challenging negative perceptions and promoting a narrative that values the contributions of sanitation workers. Ensuring dignity in their work is essential for enhancing their self-esteem and overall job satisfaction.
6. Housing and Living Conditions* Lastly, 5% of respondents (1 out of 20) mentioned the need for better housing and living conditions. This response reflects the broader socioeconomic challenges faced by sanitation workers, many of whom may live in inadequate or unsafe housing. Improving housing conditions is a fundamental aspect of enhancing quality of life and ensuring that workers can thrive outside of their professional responsibilities. This call for better living conditions emphasizes the interconnectedness of housing, health, and overall well-being.

Conclusion

The data reveals a diverse array of needs and aspirations among sanitation workers regarding government support. The emphasis on better pay, health insurance, improved working conditions, education, respect, and housing highlights the multifaceted challenges they face. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that prioritizes both the immediate safety and well-being of workers, as well as long-term solutions for economic stability and social dignity. By responding to these needs, the government can significantly enhance the lives of sanitation workers and recognize their essential contributions to society.

9. Why do you work this job?

Here’s an analysis of the responses regarding why respondents work in sanitation:

1. Lack of Alternatives* The most common reason cited (45%) for working in sanitation is the lack of alternative employment opportunities. This response underscores a significant challenge faced by many individuals in the labor market, particularly in economically disadvantaged communities. The sentiment expressed by respondents suggests that systemic barriers limit access to better job prospects, forcing individuals into sanitation work as a last resort. This highlights the need for broader economic development initiatives that create diverse employment opportunities, enabling workers to pursue more desirable and sustainable careers.
2. Family Tradition* Twenty percent of respondents indicated that they work in sanitation due to family tradition. This response reflects the societal and cultural factors that can perpetuate cycles of labor within families. For some, continuing in the family business can be seen as a duty or a way to honor their lineage. However, this perspective also raises concerns about the lack of upward mobility and the challenges of breaking free from traditional roles. It suggests a need for community engagement and educational programs that encourage young people to explore a wider range of career options, thereby fostering a shift in these longstanding traditions.
3. Financial Necessity* Thirty percent of respondents reported that they work in sanitation primarily out of financial necessity. This indicates that, for many, the job is not only a source of income but also the only viable means of supporting their families. The urgency of meeting basic needs, such as food and shelter, drives individuals to accept jobs that may be hazardous or socially stigmatized. This emphasis on financial necessity underscores the importance of fair wages and social support systems that can alleviate economic pressure and provide workers with the means to pursue better opportunities.
4. Education and Skills Deficiency* Twenty-five percent of respondents cited a lack of education and skills as a reason for working in sanitation. This highlights the significant barriers that educational deficiencies can impose on individuals seeking employment. Without the necessary skills or qualifications for higher-paying jobs, many workers find themselves relegated to low-wage labor. This response emphasizes the importance of educational and vocational training programs aimed at empowering individuals with the skills needed to access better job opportunities, ultimately contributing to their long-term economic stability.
5. Circumstances and Coercion* Fifteen percent of respondents indicated that they were forced into sanitation work by circumstances, such as family obligations or lack of options. This response reflects the broader social and economic pressures that can limit individuals’ choices, compelling them to take on jobs that may not align with their aspirations or well-being. It speaks to the need for support systems that address the root causes of such coercion, including financial assistance, social services, and access to career counseling. By addressing these underlying circumstances, it may be possible to empower individuals to make choices that better align with their personal and professional goals.

Conclusion

The data reveals a complex interplay of factors driving individuals to work in sanitation. While lack of alternatives and financial necessity dominate the responses, elements such as family tradition, educational deficiencies, and coercive circumstances also play significant roles. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes creating diverse job opportunities, improving access to education and training, and providing support systems that empower individuals to pursue their aspirations. By tackling these issues, stakeholders can help break the cycle of low-wage labor and promote better quality of life for sanitation workers and their families.

These responses highlight the systemic constraints and lack of opportunities that trap manual scavengers in their degrading work. They express a sense of inevitability, driven by poverty, lack of education, and caste-based discrimination, where survival depends on continuing the work they were born into, despite its dangers and low pay. 

Recommendations

Based on the analysis and the testimonials, the following recommendations are proposed to effectively tackle manual scavenging:

Strengthening enforcement of various policies already implemented need to be prioritized. For starters, the healthcare that these workers so desperately need in order to survive due to the dangerous nature of their work needs to be enforced. Interviewee #8 states that “healthcare is very bad because although it is technically available to us, we are often not treated properly in hospitals.” In this case, even when healthcare services are technically available, there is a glaring disparity in the quality of care received by marginalized workers. This underscores the need not only for better enforcement of healthcare policies but also for addressing the systemic discrimination that leads to subpar treatment in medical facilities. But also another facet of enforcement that certainly needs to be taken care of is late government payments. Interviewee #10 recalls that his money “comes late and isn’t reliable.” Again, the government needs to enforce these payments and actually get them to the workers on time, improving their quality of life and reducing the burden of their straining jobs.

Comprehensive rehabilitation programs should be implemented in order to transition some of these workers out of the manual scavenging profession. Many of the workers are in fact educated, however, the manual scavenging practice has been ingrained within their ancestry for so long which causes a societal expectation that they do their job. This is why these rehabilitation programs should include vocational training and psychological support to facilitate a holistic transition for manual scavengers.

Given the societal pressure placed on Dalits and manual scavengers in general, public awareness campaigns should be launched to educate the wider society about the legal and human rights aspects of manual scavenging to reduce stigma and support social integration of former scavengers. These campaigns should include testimonials from workers themselves similar to the ones gathered in this paper and publicize their experiences in front of the greater Indian society through governmental figures. Doing so will perhaps reduce societal pressure and therefore reduce the burden they face when working these jobs.

Lastly, but most importantly, the safety measures should be further regulated to prevent contamination and decrease mortality rates. Firstly, the government should make it easier for manual scavengers to access healthcare and encourage them to schedule regular check-ups with an emphasis on lung and skin health. Second, the government should subsidize and provide better protective gear as interviewee mentions “we don’t get proper equipment, so we are exposed to dangerous waste.” Proper equipment is certainly a must and should therefore decrease the mortality rate and exposure to toxic material. But the subsidy should be heavier than just better equipment. Interviewee #11 misses “water during the night shift because it runs out during the afternoon times.” Water, alongside other basic necessities should be provided to these workers in greater quantities. 

Research Conclusion

Although there have been many attempts to eradicate the practice of manual scavenging as outlined in the introduction, it unfortunately still persists to this day. Its continued persistence is why this paper emphasizes the governmental need to improve their quality of life rather than naively abolish the practice on paper. However, the issue is certainly complex and involves strengthening laws, empowering affected communities, and changing societal attitudes towards sanitation work. Only through a collective and committed effort can India hope to eliminate manual scavenging and uphold the dignity of all its citizens. 

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Footnotes:

^[1] Matt Stefon. “Manu-Smriti.” Encyclopedia Britannica, August 23, 2024.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manu-smriti.

^[2] “The Indian Caste System: Explained.” Set Free Alliance, August 26, 2021. https://setfreealliance.org/indian-caste-system-explained/#:~:text=The%20caste%20system%20is%20deeply,family%20line%20they%20come%20from.

^[3] Ranjini Manian. “India’s Caste System,” March 26, 2016. https://www.dummies.com/article/business-careers-money/business/international-business/indias-caste-system-199949/.

^[4] Priyali Sur. “Under India’s Caste System, Dalits Are Considered Untouchable. The Coronavirus Is Intensifying That Slur.” CNN, April 16, 2024. https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/15/asia/india-coronavirus-lower-castes-hnk-intl/index.html.

^[5] “Cleaning Human Waste ‘Manual Scavenging,’ Caste, and Discrimination in India.” Human Rights Watch, August 25, 2014. https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/08/25/cleaning-human-waste/manual-scavenging-caste-and-discrimination-india.

^[6] “The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act,” 2013. https://ncsk.nic.in/sites/default/files/manualsca-act19913635738516382444610.pdf.

^[7] “THE EMPLOYMENT OF MANUAL SCAVENGERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF DRY LATRINES (PROHIBITION) ACT.” Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, 1993. https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1581/1/199346.pdf.

^[8] Ayush Mehta. “Manual Scavenging : An Endless Cycle of False Promises & Failed Policies,” April 13, 2020. https://lawschoolpolicyreview.com/2020/04/13/manual-scavenging-an-endless-cycle-of-false-promises-failed-policies/#:~:text=The%20problem%20persists%20because%20the,sensitive%20and%20address%20rehabilitating%20men.

^[9] Shiva Shankar. “When It Comes to Manual Scavenging, Enacted Laws Have Persistently Failed,” November 12, 2020. https://thewire.in/rights/persistent-failure-enacted-laws-end-manual-scavenging.

^[10] Alena Kahle. “Of Legal Mobilisation and Active Citizenship: Examining NGO Litigation in India to Eradicate Manual Scavenging,” May 2022. https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=9079923&fileOId=9079924.